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+Artificial Intelligence.
+The branch of computer science concerned with making computers
+behave like humans. The term was coined in
+by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
+Artificial intelligence includes games playing: programming
+computers to play games such as chess and checkers expert systems
+: programming computers to make
+decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems
+help doctors diagnose diseases based on
+symptoms)  natural language : programming computers to understand
+natural human languages neural networks : Systems that simulate
+intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
+connections that occur in animal brains
+robotics : programming computers to see and hear and react to other
+sensory stimuli. Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial
+intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior). The
+greatest advances have occurred in the
+field of games playing. The best computer chess programs are now
+capable of beating humans. In May, 1997, an IBM super-computer
+called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a
+chess match.
+In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly
+plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have
+great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and
+they still move and handle objects clumsily.
+Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards
+because it would allow people to interact with computers without
+needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a
+computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to
+understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than
+originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that
+translate from one human language to another are in existence, but
+they are not nearly as good as human translators. There are also voice
+recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written
+words, but they do not understand what they are writing; they simply
+take dictation. Even these systems are quite limited -- you must
+speak slowly and distinctly.
+In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the
+future of artificial intelligence and of computers in general. To date,
+however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many expert systems
+help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but
+they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special
+situations.
+Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks,
+which are proving successful in a number of disciplines such as voice
+recognition and natural-language processing.
+There are several programming languages that are known as AI
+languages because they are used almost exclusively for AI
+applications. The two most common  are LISP and Prolog.
+A computer application that performs a task that would otherwise be
+performed by a human expert. For example,
+there are expert systems that can diagnose human illnesses, make
+financial forecasts, and schedule routes for delivery vehicles. Some
+expert systems are designed to take the place of human experts, while
+others are designed to aid them.
+Expert systems are part of a general category of computer
+applications known as artificial intelligence. To design an expert
+system, one needs a knowledge engineer, an individual who studies
+how human experts make decisions and translates the rules into terms
+that a computer can understand.
+A human language. For example, English, French, and Chinese are
+natural languages. Computer languages,
+such as FORTRAN and C, are not.  Probably the single most
+challenging problem in computer science is to develop computers that
+can understand natural languages. So far, the complete solution to
+this problem has proved elusive, although a great deal of progress has
+been made. Fourth-generation languages are the programming
+languages closest to natural languages.
+A type of artificial intelligence that attempts to imitate the way a
+human brain works. Rather than using a digital model, in which all
+computations manipulate zeros and ones, a neural network works by
+creating connections between processing elements, the computer
+equivalent of neurons. The organization and weights of the
+connections determine the output.
+Neural networks are particularly effective for predicting events when
+the networks have a large database of prior examples to draw on.
+Strictly speaking, a neural network implies a non-digital computer,
+but neural networks can be simulated on digital computers.
+The field of neural networks was pioneered by Bernard Widrow of
+Stanford University in the 1950s. To date,
+there are very few commercial applications of neural networks, but the
+approach is beginning to prove useful in certain areas that involve
+recognizing complex patterns, such as voice recognition.
+The field of computer science and engineering concerned with
+creating robots, devices that can move and react to sensory input.
+Robotics is one branch of artificial intelligence. Robots are now widely
+used in factories to perform
+high-precision jobs such as welding and riveting. They are also used
+in special situations that would be dangerous for humans -- for
+example, in cleaning toxic wastes or defusing bombs.
+Although great advances have been made in the field of robotics
+during the last decade, robots are still not
+very useful in everyday life, as they are too clumsy to perform
+ordinary household chores.
+Robot was coined by Czech playwright Karl Capek in his play R.U.R
+(Rossum's Universal Robots), which opened
+in Prague in 1921. Robota is the Czech word for forced labor. The term
+robotics was introduced by writer Isaac
+Asimov. In his science fiction book I, Robot, published in 1950, he
+presented three laws of robotics:
+. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a
+human being to come to harm.
+. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except
+where such orders would conflict with
+the First Law.
+. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
+does not conflict with the First or
+Second Law.